Climate Justice and Water

What is Climate Justice?

Climate justice is a term that stimulates discussions on legacies of inequality and colonial exploitation (Williams et al. 2022). This concept encompasses, and extends to, water justice; a realisation of solutions that are contextually relevant and dependent on participatory decision-making processes (Sultana 2017). While water challenges are widespread, the production of sustainable and equitable solutions should consider temporal and spatial specificity. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) attempted to acknowledge this criteria, through enforcing countries to produce regional action plans tailored to their sustainability problems. Nevertheless, progress towards SDG 6, 'Clean Water and Sanitation', has been hindered by insufficient political acknowledgement of the WASH sector and coastal communities (Corburn 2022). 

Figure 1: Progress towards SDG 6 targets and projections for necessary action (Space4Water, 2021). Adapted from (UN, 2020).

Practicing Climate Justice 

Within Bangladesh, a startling 70 million individuals are vulnerable to climate change. The repercussions of rising sea levels include reduced freshwater availability, saline intrusion of groundwater, and insufficient sanitation access. AOSED, a non-profit, centralises climate justice in their mission to address the disproportionate impacts of climate change on coastal communities. To specify, they promote multi-actor discussions on water security, integrated water resource management (IWRM), and mitigation of freshwater contamination by chemical pollutants. IWRM in isolation is an effective contribution to climate and water justice, for it considers asymmetries in water accessibility and tailors policy design to human and natural components of hydrological systems (Savenije & Van der Zaag 2008). 

Figure 2: Integrated Water Resources Management Framework (IWRM Hub)

Transferring Approaches

The discussed example of climate justice proves transferrable to alternative countries, especially in the context of the African continent. With nations such as Mozambique and Tanzania exhibiting heightened vulnerability to unprecedented climate events, grass-root initiatives are essential for the sustenance of water security and resilient infrastructure (Williams et al. 2022). Moreover, the rising prominence of climate justice in mainstream media and policy (see Fig 3) presents a suitable platform for these efforts to be presented, celebrated, and adapted. 

Figure 3: Prevalence of justice in climate policies in the US (Diezmartínez & Gianotti, 2022)

While this blog has communicated the severity of water crises relative to environmental change, I also aimed to shed light on promising initiatives working towards resilient and equitable water systems. It is challenging to deem any solution perfectly sustainable, as there are disguised power asymmetries and resource imbalances with any approach. Nevertheless, I hope that these posts have encouraged your exploration of novel dimensions of water and climate change, especially in the context of Africa.

COP28: Water as a priority or in the peripheral

What is COP28?

This post is a slight deviation from my projected narrative, but I thought it would be important to shed light on the ongoing climate conference in the UAE. For those who are unaware, COP28 is the 28th 'Conference of the Parties'; a UN-devised conference that facilitates multilateral discussions and commitments to action on prominent climate-change topics (UNCC 2023). Despite yielding benefits for climate-awareness and sustainability agendas, numerous controversies underpin the conference leadership and priorities; hosting the conference in an oil-haven for one (Sanders 2023). According to the president, water was deemed a prime concern for COP28 discussions, with analyses on the resource in ecological, agricultural, and urban contexts (Schabus 2023). Nevertheless, the prominence of the topic beyond conference doors has been limited.  

Figure 1: Controversies surrounding oil-stakeholder involvement in COP28 (O'Hare 2023)

Sincere Promises?

The mid-week summary highlighted that an astonishing $150 million has been allocated towards water scarcity financing (COP28 2023). Beyond monetary commitments, the conference has also aimed to feature collectives such as the East African Farmers Federation, to improve local stakeholder participation in discussions on water (Marrakesh Partnership 2023). While these efforts mark an improvement in water-related urgency, it is important to note that water and sanitation solely prevailed in two of thirty adaptation targets established at the previous COP27 conference (GlobalData 2023). Considering the excessive vulnerability of African nations to adverse climate events, it proves essential to prioritise water action strategies at conferences of this scale (Zielinski 2023). Yet with growing skepticism, even by environmental organisations, I beg the question of how successful COP28 and its successors will be in addressing water in Africa. 

Figure 2: COP28 Linkedin post deeming water as a priority (COP28, 2023)

Transboundary Water Management: Beyond Traditional Territories

Contesting Borders: Basins and International Boundaries 

Previously I explored water dependency on local and national scales; however, I have yet to discuss the complexities of the form of water management that transcends geographical boundaries. A fundamental constraint to the sustainable management of water resources on the continent is the fact that 68 water basins are transboundary in nature (Kotzé 2022). The Nile and Congo basins exemplify such, with their boundaries transcending nine countries (see Fig 1) (Del Pietro 2002). While the utilisation of basin resources and provisioning services varies spatially, the lack of unified, international management strategies poses implications for water scarcity and conflict mitigation (Gaye & Tindimugaya 2018).

Figure 1: Transboundary Water Basin Map of Africa (Del Pietro, 2022)

As emphasised by the African Development Bank Group (2022), environmental change will not necessarily decrease basin-wide water availability, but rather amplify disparities in water accessibility for constituent countries. The occurrence of droughts and unprecedented inundation events could severely imbalance water fluxes, with political tensions arising as a result. Alongside conflict, ineffective legislation could be detrimental to the resilience of freshwater ecosystems (Theron 2023).

Interdisciplinary Solutions to TWM

In consideration of the complexities underpinning transboundary water management (TWM), strategies must adopt an interdisciplinary outlook to yield sustainable outcomes. To illustrate, the UN-funded program on the Incomati Basin plans to implement a risk framework that prioritises water accessibility, biodiversity and livelihood stability (UN 2022). The approach ensures that legislation in Mozambique, Eswatini and South Africa is informed according to a unified framework that approaches water across sectors and beyond traditional territorial boundaries. 

Figure 2: Map of the transboundary Incomati River Basin (CCGIAR 2023)

An alternative initiative, Cooperation in International Waters in Africa (CIWA), emphasises the vitality of biodiversity research in transboundary water strategies (Theron 2023). The video embedded below presents an insightful overview of prominent water challenges faced by Lake Victoria and how CIWA adapts strategies to improve resilience through TWM. 

Figure 3: Video exploring CIWA efforts to improve TWM of Lake Victoria (CIWA, 2023)

The management of transboundary water resources is vital towards ensuring equitable water provision and the fortification of water security. Furthermore, it is an integral component when considering climate justice. I look forward to exploring what denotes climate justice and how it should be approached in the water realm for my final blog post. 

National to Local: The Realm of Water-Based Power

Small yet powerful applications

In the context of hydroelectricity, there is a misconception that projects have to be large-scale to yield widespread benefits. As discussed in my previous post, hydroelectric projects are vulnerable to the fluctuating water patterns that arise with environmental change. Nevertheless, transitioning our focus from national to local could be an unprecedented mitigation strategy for sustaining water and energy security. I would like to commence with a powerful video that explores the accomplishment of John Magiro Wagare in his construction of a small-scale hydropower installation. 

Figure 1: Video explaining the hydropower success story of Njumbi, Kenya (Great Big Story 2018)

John utilised his experience as an electrician to harvest energy from the River Godo and produce a small-scale hydro-plant constructed from repurposed materials. The establishment of Magiro Power enabled a community-wide transition towards renewable electricity as a substitute for costly, polluting alternatives (Great Big Story 2018). In this case, the use of water to facilitate a turbine mechanism ensured energy provision for over 250 households; exemplifying the potential for small-scale hydro projects to generate durable impacts.

The geographical feasibility of mini-hydropower

While population growth can coincide with a greater urban population ratio, a range of countries in SSA have displayed rural population increases in recent years (Drangert et al. 2002). These demographic patterns encourage a consideration of water management at the local scale, especially in areas where decentralised hydroelectricity could address infrastructural limitations (Falchetta et al. 2019). Korkovelos et al. (2018) conducted a fascinating analysis of the small-scale implementation of hydropower plants throughout SSA. The insights revealed the astonishing potential to generate 9.9 GW of installed capacity  in the Southern Africa region alone. Beyond this, they used geospatial analysis to identify 10,216 sites where mini-hydropower initiatives could be established (Korkovelos et al. 2018). To provide some context to what defines 'mini', John's hydroelectric plant in Njumbi, Kenya yields a capacity of 0.25 MW, which is within this range (0.1-1MW). Now imagine the implications of replicating his initiative to thousands of other contexts!

Figure 2: Identification of potential sites for variably sized small-scale hydropower initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa. Adapted from Fig 7 (Korkovelos et al. 2018)

The mass realisation of hydropower on a small-scale requires an adaptation of political mindsets, as well as innovative approaches to material circularity and renewable energy. In times where mass hydro-projects are anticipated to worsen water security and generate mass community displacement, these sustainable solutions could be vital towards climate and water resilience in SSA (Machado 2023).

What is all the dam talk about?

Hydroelectric Dependence on Water

While my previous entries have focused on the consumptive aspects of water, this article will address the role of the resource as a facilitator. Water retains vast importance as an input for agricultural, industrial, and domestic applications; however, an additional realm with huge reliance on the resource is electricity production (Yamba et al. 2011).

Figure 1: Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam situated along the River Nile (Hailu 2022)

Hydropower presents a fascinating case for renewable energy transitions, for it is a mature concept that has experienced rapid innovation and application in recent years. For those unfamiliar to the term, hydropower is a means of electricity generation that utilises the kinetic (moving) and potential (height-based) energy of water . In theory, the technique would be ideal for energy transitions on a global scale; however, the installation of hydroelectric dams is entirely reliant on hydrological compatibility. Compatibility is exemplified throughout the Sub-Saharan African region, where hydropower accounts for over 50% of national electricity production in certain countries (Falchetta et al. 2019) (see Fig 2). 

Figure 2: Hydroelectricity share in national electricity production for 2020 (Zandt 2022)

Climate Change Vulnerability

While the abundance of hydropower on the continent is commendable, the long-term resilience of this production strategy is threatened by environmental change. Climate change presents the risks of extended drought periods and variable precipitation patterns (Yamba et al. 2011). Each of these factors significantly inform the river flow regimes and reservoir storage upon which hydroelectric productivity is dependent on. Beyond the discernible, climate change heightens the uncertainty surrounding inequalities in water and energy access.

Figure 3: Comparison of installed hydropower capacity per capita for largest African and European producers (Borowski, 2022)

Borowski (2022) revealed that of the ten largest producers of hydropower on the African continent, Zambia achieved the highest installed capacity per person, at approximately 131 Watts (see Fig 3). Initially this value appears adequate, yet if you return to the previous figure, an unforeseen component of the statistic is revealed. Over 81% of national electricity production is derived from hydropower in Zambia. While it should not be assumed that electricity consumption is homogenous, these statistics emphasise an extremely low production capacity relative to the population that it aims to sustain. The severity of such is predicted to worsen with rising population rates and hydroelectric vulnerability; however, there are numerous mitigation strategies that aim to minimise these implications (IEA, 2020).

Moving Forward...

The following blog post will delve further into mitigation strategies and adopt a more optimistic stance on hydropower relative to climate change. I look forward to sharing the captivating potential of local and small-scale hydropower initiatives for the improvement of both water and energy accessibility. 

Community Water Management: A Sustainable Solution?

Community Water Management

When confronting the topic of climate change, an approach typically suggested to improve water access at the local scale is Community Water Management (CWM). CWM involves the provision of funding and technology from an external actor to sustain a locally operated and regulated water system (Harvey & Reed 2006). For communities where financial security is a restricting factor, this strategy presents an appealing solution to water challenges and potential insecurity from environmental change. To consider the true effectiveness and sustainability of CWM, I present the case study of Lake Chad.                                

The Case of Lake Chad     

Lake Chad, alike most inland water bodies, is a vital source of freshwater to the population by which it is surrounded. Beyond drinking water applications, the lake is a fundamental contributor to agricultural and fishery productivity (FAO 2019). While the importance of the lake continues to heighten, unsustainable water extraction and rapid environmental change are steadily depleting the contents of this remarkable waterbody. Bear in mind, the implications of climate change and ineffective water management lead to a shocking 90% decline in the surface area of Lake Chad across merely six decades (FAO).

Fig 1. Lake Chad Water Decline (Sigelmann 2019)

The FAO project of 2018, in partnership with ENI, was deemed a sustainable intervention strategy to elevate water accessibility in the Lake Chad region. They used three stages to tackle water security: researching appropriate sites for boreholes, constructing solar-powered wells, and establishing locally managed water committees to sustain the water systems. Holistically, the strategy not only increased community resilience towards worsening climate conditions, it also benefited food production, gender equality, and accessibility to improved water sources. 

Fig 2. Solar powered borehole system implemented by FAO (Afrik21 2022)

Power to the community, but at what cost?

The establishment of local water committees aims to allocate the power to the community, with the anticipated benefits of collective decision making and an increased sense of responsibility. While conceptually ideal, these committees have proven to worsen social inequalities in certain cases, with gender and power imbalances being exacerbated by the exclusion of marginalised community members from decisions (Shields et al. 2021). Beyond social dynamics, a question that might spring to mind is what happens to the systems in the event of failure? Although technologically ideal, the solar-powered well systems are founded on Western technology with specific operation and maintenance requirements. To provide power to the community, the model inherently provides the community with O/M responsibility as well. For situations where the financial and physical capacity to repair systems is limited, the lasting community approval of CWM accordingly suffers (Hope 2015). 

It is vital to highlight that CWM strategies, such as that of Lake Chad, drastically benefited the status of water security. Yet to label these approaches as sustainable can be deceiving. For CWM approaches to retain lasting sustainability, the involvement of communities should not be constrained to the management stage of the project. Foreign aid providers should incorporate communities in all stages of the project, whether it be planning, construction, or maintenance. The absence of those dependent on the system from its design is already elevating its susceptibility to both contestation and failure (Carter et al. 2007). As emphasised by Euphresia Luseka in her discussion of the decolonization of the WASH sector, foreign involvement in water management is largely characterised by an absence of knowledge, editorial influence, or input from African researchers (2020). 

An introduction to water in relation to environmental change in Africa

A little introduction

Welcome to my blog! I am a third-year student pursuing a Geography exchange at UCL and specialising in Sustainability Science at Utrecht University. I plan to use this platform as a means to discuss environmental change in Africa through the lens of water. While a range of knowledge and technological solutions exist relative to water, the field is highly saturated with Eurocentric approaches (Arowosegbe 2014). Furthermore, the techniques used to measure or resolve water challenges are questionable in their long-term sustainability. I look forward to delving into topics ranging from climate change to innovative water adaptation, and shedding insight from a sustainability perspective. 

Africa is immensely diverse with respect to climate, topography and culture; however, Western depictions fail to acknowledge the heterogeneity of the 54 countries hosted on the continent (Larsen & Jensen 2020). Having spent the majority of my childhood in Southern-Eastern Africa, it can be frustrating to witness the number of generalisations used to discuss challenges and opportunities surrounding water on the continent. Nonetheless, I hope to present case studies and statistics that deconstruct an image of homogeneity. 

Changes beyond the climate

To start off, it is vital to discuss the inherent links between climate change and inequalities. While the emergence of climate change was largely driven by the rapid industrialisation of countries throughout the Global North, the burdens of such are predominantly attributed to countries in the Southern Hemisphere. The geographical situations of these countries elevates their vulnerability to extreme inundation events, droughts and unprecedented disasters. In Sub-Saharan Africa where various countries display extended histories of drought, conflict and food insecurity, climate change is anticipated to exacerbate challenges, especially in the realm of water.

Fig 1. Drought susceptibility of countries throughout Africa (Hitachi)

Defining Stress

To understand the severity of water-related issues, indicators are a useful mechanism for comparative applications. The Water Stress Index (WSI) is one of the most widespread indicators, which attempts to present scarcity according to availability (Ding & Ghosh 2017). While useful, the WSI excludes various essential factors from its calculations; namely, groundwater storage, seasonal fluctuations, and climate events (Damkjaer & Taylor 2017). An isolated review of the Southern African region alone indicated that approximately 39 million are threatened by groundwater shortages (Tucker et al. 2014). Yet from a WSI perspective, this magnitude of scarcity would not even be considered. It leads us to pose the question of how can we consider such complex, multidimensional issues when our measurement approaches are inherently simple.

I hope to explore further complexities of water management through an analysis of community-based water management. Stay tuned!